Anthropology
for Teachers
Concept
of Anthropology
A. Definition of Anthropology
Comes
from the Greek words; anthropos (man) and logos (study).
Concerns
explicitly and directly with all varieties of people throughout the world and
it traces human evolution and cultural development from millions of years ago
to present (Ember, 1993).
It
looks into the attributes of a particular human population.
B. Two Major Disciplines of Anthropology
B.1 Physical
Anthropology "concerns with human evolution and human variation (Paleontology
or paleoanthropology)
B.2 Cultural
Anthropology - deals with the study of culture consists’ of three areas as follows:
1. Linguistics-
focuses on historical and descriptive or structural linguistics. It looks into the
emergence of language and variations of language over time.
2. Archaeology-deals
with cultural history
3. Ethnology (cultural
anthropology)-studies cultural variation
A. Schools of Thought in Cultural Anthropology
-
Early Evolutionism (Edward B. Taylor
and Lewis Henry Morgan) - states that most societies were believed to pass
through the same series of stages, to arrive ultimately at a common end
-
Historical
Particularism
- Franz Boas. the proponent, believed that it was premature to formulate
universal law since there is a need to study the context of society in which
they appeared.
-
Diffusionism (British, German
and Austrian Anthropologists) spread the idea that most aspects of civilization
had emerged in culture centers and later diffused outward.
-
Functionalism
(Bronislaw Malinowski). It holds that all culture traits serve the needs of
individuals in a society; the function of culture traits is the ability to
satisfy some basic or derived need.
-
Structural-functionalist
approach (Arthur Reginald Radcliffe-Brown) assumes that the various aspects of
social behavior maintain a society's social structure- its total network of
social relationships - rather than satisfying individual needs. It works in the
following assumption: stability, harmony, equilibrium and evolution.
-
Psychological Approaches
(Edward Sapir, Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead) seek to understand
how psychological factors and processes may help us explain cultural practices.
-
Later Evolutionism
(Leslie White)
states that culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per
year is increased or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting the
energy to work increased.
-
Structuralism- Claude
Levi-Strauss sees culture as it is expressed in art, ritual, and the patterns
of daily life, as a surface representation of the underlying patterns of the
human mind.
-
Ethno science (ethnography) explains culture
from the way people used to describe their activities.
-
Cultural
Ecology seeks to understand the relationship between culture and social environments
-
Political economy centers on the
impact of external political and economic processes, particularly as connected
to colonialism and imperialism, on local events and cultures in the
underdeveloped countries.
-
Sociobiology involves the
application of biological evolutionary principles to the social behavior of
animals, including humans.
-
Interpretive
approaches
consider cultures as texts to be analyzed for their meanings.
-
Feminist
Anthropology
includes women's issues in the study of culture and society.
-
Conflict Theory-advocates of this
theory ask this question: "Who controls the scarce resources of a given
society"? It assumes that society can be explained based on the following
assumptions: economic determinism, dialectism and social action.
B. Types of Research in Cultural
Anthropology
- Ethnography
- Non-historical Research
- Historical Research
- Cross-Cultural Research
II. Human Evolution
A. Beliefs about
human beings
Divine
theory
Systema
Naturae by Cart Linneaus (carolus )
Jean
Baptiste Lamarck- species could evolve
Erasmus
Darwin - inheritance of acquired characteristics
Charles
Lyeli-Principles of Geology
B. Theory of Natural Selection proposed by
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace
-
The
theory of natural selection proposes that those organisms best adapted to a particular
environment produce the most offspring overtime.
C. Gregor Mendel's experiments
-
Mendel's
research in genetics and DNA and RNA led us to understand the mechanisms by
which traits may be passed from one generation to the next.
D. Sources of Biological Variation
1. Genetic
recombination- random assortment, segregation and crossing-over
2. Mutation -
change in DNA sequence
E. Factors in Human Variation
1. Genetic Drift
2. Gene Flow
3. Influence of
Physical Environment
4. Influence of
social and cultural environment
F. Humans are a product of the interaction
of biological and cultural evolution.
G. Physical Variation among Humans
genetic
variation
body
build
facial
construction
skin
color
height
Lactase
deficiency
H. Problems about Human Variation
1. Racism
2. Gender Discrimination
I. Diagram on Human Evolution: Biological
and Cultural
TIME (YEARS
AGO)
|
GEOLOGIC EPOCH
|
FOSSIL RECORD
|
ARCHEOLOGICAL PERIODS
|
MAJOR CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
|
5500 (3500
B.C.)
|
|
|
Bronze Age
|
Cities and
States;
Social
Inequality; Full- time Craft specialist
|
10,000(8.000
B.C.)
|
|
|
Neolithic
Mesolithic
|
Domestication
of plants and animals; permanent villages
Broad
spectrum food collecting; increasing sedimentary
communities;
many kinds of microliths
|
14,000
(12,000 B.C.)
|
Pleistocene
|
Earliest humans in New
World
|
Upper
Paleolithic
|
Cave
paintings; female figurines; many kinds of blades tools
|
40,000
|
|
Modem humans
Homo sapiens
|
|
|
200,000
|
|
Neanderthal Homo sapiens
Earliest Homo sapiens (?)
|
Middle
Paleolithic
|
Religious
beliefs(?)
burials; Moustenan
tools
|
300,000
|
|
Homo Erectus
|
|
|
700,000
1,500,000
1.800,000
|
Pliocene
|
Earliest hominids
Australopithe-cus
|
Homo Habilis
Lower
Paleolithic
|
Hunting/scavenging;
seasonal campsites;
Oldowan tools
|
2,000,000
|
|
Diversification of Apes
Sivapithecus
Dryopithecus
Proconsu
|
|
Earliest stone tools
|
5,000,000
|
Miocene
|
Earliest apes (?)
Propliopithe-cus
e.g. Aegyptopithe-cus
|
|
|
22,500,000
|
|
Earliest anthropoids
|
|
|
29,000,000
|
|
Parapithecids
e.g. Apldium
|
|
|
32,000.000
|
Oligocene
|
Ampipithecus tetonius
Earliest Primates
Purgaforius
|
|
|
38,000,000
|
Eocene
|
|
|
|
50,000,000
|
Paleocene
|
|
|
|
53,500,000
|
Late
Cretaceous
|
|
|
|
70,000.000
|
|
|
|
|
Ember:
1996
-
Homo
erectus begun to evolve into Homo sapiens after about 500,000 years ago.
-
Pro-modem
Homo sapiens have been found in Africa, Asia and Europe.
-
The
oldest fossil remains of a modem looking human have been found in South Africa.
-
Two
theories about the origins of modem humans:
1.
Single-origin
theory- modem humans emerged in just one part of the Old World (the near east
and recently South Africa.
2.
Continuous
Evolution Theory-modem humans emerged gradually in various parts of the Old
World
J.
Broad spectrum collection (Mesolithic Period) was associated with the
development of sedentary life
K.
Domestication of Plants and Animals (Neolithic Revolution)
L.
Population generally Increased after plant and animal domestication.
M.
Growth of Cities and States
-
The
key criterion for state is the presence of hierarchical and centralized decision-making
affecting a substantial population.
-
Most
states have duties with public buildings, full time craft and religious
specialists, an official art style and a hierarchical social structure.
-
Earliest
states: Southern Iraq (Sumer) in the Near East, in Mesopotamia, the valley of
-
Oaxaca
and later in Teotehuaca
III. The Study of Culture
A. Definition
Culture is
personality writ large (Ruth Benedict). It is a sort of group personality that forms
an overall cultural orientation within which there is a considerable variation.
Anything shared by
human beings.
Cultural
configurations- the Idea that cultures possess internal coherence and consistency.
Culture is not just the sum of individuals who adhere to them, because it also
includes developed and elaborated traits with greater intensity and richness.
This is our cultural heritage.
Cultural Relativism
is the attitude that a society's customs and ideas should be described objectively
and understood in the context of that society's problems and opportunities.
Ethnocentrism is
the tendency to regard ones culture as superior
B. The Ability of Human Beings to Produce
and Acquire Culture Can be attributed to the
Following Biological Characteristics:
Large
brain
Bipedal
Opposable
thumb
Well
developed vocal chords
Long
period of dependency
Reproduction
is not seasonal; human beings can reproduce during fertile period
C. Theories About the Development of
Personality
1. Theory of Sigmund Freud- Origin of
Society Hypothesis- Oedipal Complex (incest and exogamy)
2. Malinowski – Matrilineal Family
3. Benedict and Mead emphasized the ways
culture develops individual personality.
4. Kardiner - illustrated the presence of
various personality types in a culture. Personalities differ because of the
variations in cultural institutions.
5. M. Whiting and L. Child suggest that childrearing
practices develop certain personality types.
D. National character - modal
characteristics of a people.
E. Objections to National Character Studies
- Abnormal personality
F. Two ways by which culture can be
internalized:
- Habituation-human beings learn certain techniques
- Education - skills are taught; directed Seaming process
G. Language and Culture
1.
Communication is a function of language
2.
Forms of communication
[
verbal
[
nonverbal
3.
Structural linguistics try to discover the rules of
[
phonology
(the patterning of sounds);
[
morphology
(the patterning of sound sequences and words), and
[
syntax
(the patterning of phrases and sentences) that predicts how most speakers of
language talk.
4.
Historical linguists study the origin of languages.
5.
Sociolinguistics concerns about the ethnography of speaking- that is, with
cultural and sub cultural patterns of speaking in different social contexts
social status and
speech
sex differences in
speech
H.
Sex and Culture
Sex and Gender
Differences
Gender Roles in
productive and domestic activities; political leadership and warfare
Status of Men and
Women
IV.
Economic Systems
A. Subsistence Economy
§
Food
Collection - hunting, fishing and gathering
§
Agricultural
economy
§
Pastoralism
B. Patterns of Subsistence in the
Philippines
C. The use of technology
D. Access to natural resources
E. Organization of labor
F. Market or commercial exchange economy
V.
Social Stratification
A. Definition
Social
Stratification pertains to division in society due to access or right to
certain advantages. The advantages may be in the form of economic resources,
power and prestige
B. Type of Societies
1. Egalitarian societies are societies in
which many positions of prestige in any given age-sex grade could be filled by
those who are capable.
2. Rank societies are characterized by
social groups having unequal access to prestige or status but not significantly
unequal access to economic resources or power
3. Class societies are characterized by
having unequal access to economic resources and power. Class society ranges
from open class system to close class system.
VI.
Marriage and Family
A. Definition of Marriage
Marriage means a socially approved sexual
and economic union between a woman and a man.
B. Types of Marriages
By Number
Monogamy
Polygamy-
polyandry and polygyny and group marriage
Whom should one
marry?
Endogenous
marriage and exogenous marriage
Cousin
marriages
Levirate
and Sororate
C. Types of Family
By composition;
Nuclear, Extended
By Residence:
Patrilocal, Matrilocal, Bilocal Neolocal, Avunculocal
By Orientation:
Patrilineal, Matrilineal, Bilateral
Unilineal Descent
patrilineages, matrilineages, patricians, matridans
Kinship
Terminology: consanguineal kin, affinal kin
By power:
Patriarchal, Matriarchal,Egalitarian
D. Economic Consideration in Marriage
Bride
price
Dowry
E. Incest Taboo - is the prohibition of
sexual intercourse or marriage between mother and son, father and daughter, and
brother and sister, Incest taboo is universal, however, the Incan and Hawaiian
royal families allow incest.
F. Theories on the universality of incest
taboo
- Childhood-Familiarity Theory-Children raised together are not sexually attracted to each other when they grow up.
- Freud's Psychoanalytic theory-suggest that the son may be attracted to the mother but the father might retaliate against the son. Hence such feelings must be renounce or repressed,
- Family disruption theory (Malinowski) sexual competition among family members may create so much tension and rivalry thus may result to disruption of the functions of the family.
- Cooperation Theory- incest taboo promotes cooperation among family members.
- Inbreeding theory-emphasizes tie damaging consequences of inbreeding
VII. Social Organization
A. Types of Social Organization
- Simple social organization is one characterized by relatively few and homogenous social units and less elaborate cultural forms. The family or the household serves as the basic social unit around which all activities revolved.
- Complex Social Organization is one characterized by greater internal heterogeneity of social units and more elaborate cultural forms. Differentiation in the structure of social relations is clear-cut and it revolves around specialized institutions.
B. Some Examples of Associations
Membership Criteria
|
Recruitment
|
|
Voluntary
|
Non-voluntary
|
|
Universally Ascribed
|
|
Age-Sets
Most unisex associations
|
Variably Ascribed
|
Ethnic
Associations Regional Associations
|
Conscripted army
|
Achieved
|
Occupational
Associations Political Parties. Special Interest Groups
|
|
C. Political Organizations: band, tribe,
chiefdom and state
D. Resolution of conflict: community
action, informal adjudication without power, ritual reconciliation -apology,
oaths and ordeals, codified laws and courts, feuding, raiding, large - scale
confrontation
E. Filipino Indigenous ethnic communities
may be grouped into five general types (Jocano, 1998):
1. Pisan (campsite) -
Agta term for small exogamous local groups consisting mostly of kinsmen
2. Puro (settlement) -
Sulod term for semi-sedentary, amorphous aggregate of persons who live in a
particular and named settlement (Swidden or Kaingin)
3. Ili (village) -
Bontoc in origin which corresponds to village type organization
4. Magani (district) -
Agusan Manobo, Sodat organization of dry crop farmers whose social organization
corresponds rank organization
5. Banwa (domain) -
Manuvu term for self-contained villages
VIII. Religion and Magic
A. Definition of Religion
Religion is any set
of attitudes, beliefs, and practices pertaining to supernatural power
B. Religion is universal for the following
.reasons:
Need
for intellectual understanding
Decrease
guilt, anxiety or uncertainty
Need
for community
C. Variations in religious beliefs
- Existence of impersonal supernatural forces (e.g. mana and taboo)
- Supernatural beings of nonhuman origins (gods and spirits)
- Supernatural beings of human origin (ghosts and ancestor spirits)
D. Ways of Communicating with the
supernatural include prayer, doing things to the body and the mind, simulation,
feast and sacrifices
E. Magic is the belief that actions can
compel the supernatural to act in a particular and intended way. Sorcery and
witchcraft are attempts to make the spirits work harm against people.
F. Religious/Magical practitioners include
shamans, sorcerers or witches, mediums and priests
G. Religion and Political Movements
IX. The Arts
* ,
A. Body Decoration and Adornment: paint or
objects such as feathers, jewelry, skins and clothing. Body decorations may be
used to delineate social position, rank, sex, occupation, local and ethnic
identity
B. Visual Art
Artistic Differences in Egalitarian and
Stratified Societies
Egalitarian Society
|
Stratified Society
|
Repetition
of simple elements Much empty or "irrelevant" space Symmetrical
design Unenclosed figures
|
Integration
of unlike elements Little empty space Asymmetrical design Enclosed figures
|
C. Music
D. Folklore
X. Culture Changes
A. Discovery and Invention
B. Diffusion
C. Acculturation
D. Revolution
E. Types of Culture Change
Commercialization
Religious
Change
Economic
Change
Social
Philosophy
PART
I: CONTENT UPDATE
Philosophy
-
From
two Greek words: Philein which means "to love", and Sophia
which means "wisdom". According to Manuel Velasquez, philosophy is
"the pursuit of wisdom about what it means to be a human being, what the
fundamental nature of God and reality is. what the sources and limits of our
knowledge are, and what is good and right In our lives and in our societies,
-
Traditionally
defined as the sciences of all things studied from the viewpoint of their
ultimate causes under the light of human reason alone. (According to Bertram/
Russel, philosophy is the no man's land between theology and science.)
Three
Traditional Divisions:
- Epistemology - literally means "the study of knowledge". It deals with questions of knowledge (including the structure, reliability, extent, and kinds of knowledge); truth, validity, and logic; and a variety of linguistic concerns, (e.g. the question of whether truth is relative)
- Metaphysics ~ addresses questions of reality (including the meaning and nature of being); the nature of mind, self, and human freedom; and some topics that overlap with religion, such as the existence of God, the destiny of the universe, and the immortality of the soul. (E.g. question of whether human behavior is free or determined)
- Ethics - study of values and moral principles and how they relate to human conduct to our social and political institutions, (e.g. question of whether human beings have the moral obligation to love and serve others, or obligation only to themselves)
* social philosophy falls under this
division,
Social
Philosophy
– is the study of society and its processes and activities with particular
emphasis on the basic principles underlying social structures and functions. It
is the study of the rightness or wrongness of societal orders, institutions,
structures, systems, functions, and processes.
(Thomas Hobbes first used the term
"social philosophy". He is also widely considered as the father of
social philosophy.)
Prerequisite to an understanding of social
philosophy are the following six basic factors or concerns:
First: An understanding of nature of associative
life (the person existing in correlation with society).
Second:
Associative life requiring a set of values towards which all social processes
and activities are directed.
Third: The means to the set of values essential in
the associative life
Fourth: The law.
Fifth: The obligation of the individuals to the
state and the state to the individuals.
Sixth: The ideal of social and individual
justice.
To sum up, the study of social philosophy
revolves around these six lectors: associations, values, power, rights, obligations
and justice.
SOCIAL
PHILSOPHIES
A.
Classical Realism
Realism is the philosophy
that regards the universe as composed of beings existing independently but
related and forming a hierarchical structure called cosmos or totality.
Classical
Realism
distinguishes a person from other living substances as endowed with two
natures: animal and rational. Animal nature with its various appetites and
sensual desires is perfected by the practice of the habits of the "golden
mean" between the two extremes of excess and deficiency. These habits
enable a person to develop the moral virtues of temperance and courage. These
moral virtues, in turn, enable a person to perfect the rational nature by
achieving the intellectual virtues of wisdom, prudence, and art.
However, full human nature is not only
achieved by the development of virtues atone.
Full human nature enables a person to
achieve the ultimate goal of happiness by transcending self-realization with
the acceptance that one is not self-sufficient when isolated from others.
Aristotle emphasized that a person is a part in relation to the whole which is
society, and that anyone who is not able to live in society or who does not
need it is either a beast or a god, but not a human being. Society, therefore,
is the external support of a person's self-realization. It follows, therefore,
that the state, which is a form of organized society, has the moral purpose of
maintaining proper order and exercising justice for the good of the whole or
the common good.
B.
Positivism
Positivism
as
a philosophy is based primarily on science and scientific discoveries. Auguste
Comte came up with the term when he developed his philosophical idea regarding
the laws of societal growth. He maintains that there are three ascending levels
of explanation of natural phenomena:
Theological
level - explains natural phenomena by involving spiritual or anthromorphic
beings.
Metaphysical
level- depersonalizes these beings into forces and essences
Positive
level - relies mainly on sciences and scientific descriptions.
Comte contends that
as the new society develops in the positive level (or positivist society);
performing one's duties to society and of serving the interests of humanity
will prevail over the concept of society as existing to serve the interests of
individuals. In other words, he maintains that the development of industrial
society based on sciences and industry, when properly organized, will be
accompanied by a moral regeneration involving the substitution of concern with
the welfare of humanity for concern with the individual's private
interests.
Intellectual Phase
|
Material Phase
|
Type of Social Unit
|
Type of Order
|
Prevailing Sentiment
|
Theological
|
Military
|
Family
|
Domestic
|
Attachment
|
Metaphysical
|
Legalistic
|
State
|
Collective
|
Veneration (Awe
or respect)
|
Positive
|
Industrial
|
Race (Humanity)
|
Universal
|
Benevolence
|
* Comte framed the term sociology.
C.
Pragmatism
Pragmatism is the
acknowledged contribution of America to philosophy. Three American thinkers
figured prominently in the development of pragmatism:
-
Charles
Sanders Peirce (pronounced as "purse")
-
William
James
-
John
Dewey
Dewey defined pragmatism
as the "theory that the processes and the materials of knowledge are
determined by practical or purposive consideration". According to Peirce
the pragmatists' view is supported by the practices of experimental sciences
specifically the laboratory method in which the hypotheses are ideas or
proposed solutions to felt problems. These are tested and either rejected or
confirmed. Truth, therefore, is that which works and is successful in solving
problems.
The pragmatists' focus on consequences and
how they are controlled through intelligence is the foundation of their
concepts of person and society. A person is a social animal because association
rather than isolation is the Law that governs everything that exists.
Almost
every other kind of achievable value is acquired because of social process in
which each value individual valuer is when he is normally fitted to his sphere.
In essence, for pragmatism society is not just a conglomeration of individuals
but an organic process upon which individuals depend and by which they live. As
the soil is to plants and trees, so society is to the individual which nurtures
human life in its individual forms and makes possible of all the flowerings of
personality.
The pragmatists also claim that human
society is much more commonly the context in which concepts are formed.
The ends of associative life such as
survival, habits of action and thought, and, choice of consequences are served
by numerous social groups To the pragmatists, society is pluralistic, not an
entity in itself, but a collection of interacting primary groups. These smaller
groups however produce consequences on persons other than those who directly
participate in these primary groups.
Pragmatism views a person as a problem
solver In an environment of pluralism of groups, interests, and consequences.
D.
Naturalism
Naturalism is a philosophy
that denies anything as having supernaturality. It contends, especially its
earlier versions, that the common context in which concepts are formed is the
physical universe (unlike pragmatism which maintains that the human society is
the common context where ideas are formed). A human being is a transitory
product of physical processes. Thus, human beings and society are dependent on
the natural order. Society therefore is received as less organic. It is an
aspect or portion of nature, not so much an organism that has rhythms and
patterns. The individual is therefore considered as nature's offspring, not a
child of society or a segment whose very being depends upon the social
organism. Although dependent upon nature, he stands on his own feet, more or
less, as far as his relations to society are concerned. There are what might be
called certain necessities which make it expedient for him to relate himself
somewhat effectively socially; but these are not necessities arising from the
operation of society as an organism, so much as they are accidents or
exigencies to be avoided by working out some kind of social organization to
correct them.
Thomas
Hobbes
viewed the individual and his native state as at war with himself. He is
competitive, he grasps for honor and dignity, he is troublesome, and he is
hungry for power. Human beings left to them selves without some kind of control
will kill themselves in the chaos and anarchy of selfish struggle. The only way
that man can be saved from himself sociologically is for individual man to
surrender his freedom to some superior social power or organization to which he
must give absolute obedience as to a moral god.
Jean-Jacques
Rousseau's
naturalism rooted man in nature rather than in society. He contends that the
individual is a child of nature so much so that he proposed in his
"Emile" to keep Emile away from society until adolescence. Through
his Social Contract, he reveals how the problem of social organization is
complicated by the importance of maintaining the human being's freedom. The
individual, he maintains, is not a human being unless he is free, if he is in
bondage, then he is a human being. However, unrestricted freedom is neither in
harmony with his welfare nor with the welfare of the society. Apparently some
social organization is required, one that preserves the freedom of the
individual.
It
seems that for naturalism social values are synthetic values, which result from
agreements in which human beings bind themselves together. Such are inferior
goods, not so much preferred as individual goods, which result indirectly as a
consequence of the desire to avoid the greater evils which accompany anarchy.
They are not organic values which are determined in part by the very nature of
society and which would never be possessed by humans separately, even if they
did not need to be saved from conflict and chaos by some kind of social
groupings.
E.
Liberalism
Liberalism is a philosophy or
movement that has as its aim the development of individual freedom and adheres
to the idea that the society is one in which individuals are left free to
pursue their own interests and fulfillment as each chooses. As Mill argued, the
only restraints to which adult individuals should be subjected are those
necessary to keep an individual from harming others. However, because the
concepts of liberty or freedom change in different historical periods its
specific programs also change. The final aim of liberalism, though, remains
fixed, as does its characteristic belief not only in essential human goodness
but also in human rationality. Liberalism assumes that people, having a
rational intellect, have the ability to recognize problems and solve them and
thus can achieve systematic improvement in the human condition. Often opposed
to liberalism is the doctrine of conservatism, which simply states, supports
the maintenance of the status quo. Liberalism, which seeks what it considers to
be improvement or progress, necessarily desires to change the existing order.
It is in the works of John Locke that the
soul of philosophical liberalism is found. Locke claims that freedom and
equality of all human beings are governed by a (aw of nature that necessitates
everyone to respect the freedom of self-determination in others and to treat
others as equals. Reason defines the rights and duties that constitute and
sustain everyone's freedom.
However, people find it necessary to give
up their natural freedom in order to form a society. They enter into a societal
contract where they give up their power of self preservation in exchange for
the collective and stronger action of society and government. Through this
social compact people agree to live in the bonds of civil society. The contract
creates one body that acts by the consent of the majority, and by agreeing to
the contract, individuals place themselves under the obligation to submit to
the determinations of the majority. Thus, the existence of society and the
authority of government arise out of people's freely given consent as emphasized
by Locke, and not out of people's needs as asserted by Hobbes.
Contemporary
Liberalism
has retained the fundamental commitment to individual liberty but has added to
it an awareness of the extent to which economic relations can indirectly limit
an individual's liberty. The choice of a poor person is very much restricted
compared to a rich man. Contemporary liberalism has tended to incorporate the
view that individuals can be constrained to provide economic support for the
poor through welfare programs. It has also tended to incorporate the view that
individuals should be given some protection against the economic power of the
wealthy through laws that protect the worker.
One of the representatives of contemporary
liberalism is John Rawls. Rawls also acknowledges that social relationships
have a deep and profound effect on the individual's sense of fulfillment. A
society's institutions are what primarily determine what we can do and what our
lives as individuals will be like,
Rawls claims that the most important
question about society is whether it is just or not. According to Rawls, the
laws and institutions of a society must embody justice and be based on these
two principles of justice: first, that everyone in society must have political
rights and duties, and second, that the only justifiable economic inequalities
are those required to make everyone better off by serving as incentives. If
this will not be the case, then it must be reformed.
F.
Idealism
Idealism grew out as a
reaction to naturalism. According to naturalism, truth or reality exists in
Ideas or in the spirit or in the mind. Material objects are merely
representations of the idea. While idealism emphasizes that the will governs
one's conduct, naturalism says that impulse, instincts, and experience govern
one's conduct. While idealism judges behavior in terms of motives, naturalism
judges behavior on the basis of results. Naturalism would say that the end
justifies the means. Idealism would say that the knowledge is obtained by
speculation and reasoning, naturalism regards scientific observation. Naturalism regards scientific knowledge as
final.
The idealist notion of society is not an
aggregation or collection of individuals; it is an organism in which
individuals participate. Individual selfhood is not something which can grow in
isolation; it is given birth through the social process and comes into actual
self-realization only in relation with society as its medium of nature and
development. This is not to say that the individual is subordinate to society.
With the society providing the matrix for the development of the individual,
the individual progresses and slowly proceed in the process of self-realization
and at the same time, society develops in a process of realizing the ultimately
good society.
G.
Communism
Karl
Marx
believed that the human being, apart from some obvious biological factors, has
no essential human nature — that is, something that it is true of every human
being at all times everywhere. However, he believes that human beings are
social beings, that to speak of human nature is really to speak about the
totality of social relations. Accordingly, whatever any of us does is a social
act. which presupposes the existence of other people standing in certain
relations to us. In short, everything is socially (earned. He further claims
that it is not the consciousness of individuals that defines their beings, but
it is their social being that determines their consciousness.
Marx also claimed that the history of the
world should be viewed as a history of class struggles. He believed that the
universal laws operating in history are economic in nature. Moreover, he saw a
causal connection between the economic structure and everything in society such
that the mode of production of material life determines the general character
of the social, political and spiritual processes of life.
Marx claims that eventually, capitalism
will become increasing unstable economically. The class struggle between the
bourgeoisie (ownership class) and proletariat (working class) will increase.
The poor will be poorer, and increasing in number. The upshot will be a social
revolution. The workers will initiate the new communist phase of history.
H.
Communitariansm
Communitarianism
is
the view that the actual community in which we live should be at the center of
our analysis of society and government. Communitarians emphasize the social
nature of human beings. They argue that our very identity - who we are ~
depends on our relationships to others in our communities. We are embedded in
our community and its cultural practices. Thus, we cannot understand our selves
apart from our community and its cultural practices.
According to communitarians, the state is
natural. It is, like the family and the tribe, the natural outgrowth of the
human beings' natural tendency to live together. They also believe that the
human being can only fully develop within the state. Thus, it is obvious that
communitarians do not claim that the state is an artificial construct. They
also do not claim that the individual is prior to the development of the state.
But they do claim that the state and its cultural practices are the source of
the identity of all human beings. That is, it is in the state that human beings
acquire the cultures and traditions that they use to define themselves.
I.
Fascism
The term fascism was first used by Italian
dictator Benito Mussolini in 1919. The term comes from the Italian word fascio,
which means "union".
Fascism is a totalitarian philosophy of government
that seeks to regenerate the social, economic, and cultural life of a country
by basing it on a heightened sense of national belonging or ethnic identity, It
rejects liberal ideas such as freedom and individual rights, and often presses
for the destruction of elections, legislatures, and other elements of
democracy.
Fascism is characterized by the following:
Emphasis
on the glorification of the state and the total subordination for the
individual to it. The state is defined as an organic into whom individuals must
be absorbed for them and the state's benefit. The 'total state" is
absolute in its methods and unlimited by (aw in its control and direction of
its citizens.
Social
Darwinism - The doctrine of survival of the fittest and the necessity of the
struggle for life is applied by fascists to the life of a nation-state.
Peaceful, complacent nations are seen as doomed to fail before more dynamic
ones, making struggle and aggressive militarism a leading, characteristic of
the fascist state. Imperialism is the logical outcome of this dogma.
Elitism
- salvation from rule by the mob and the destruction of the existing social
order can be affected only by an authoritarian leader who embodies the highest
ideals of the nation. This concept of leader as hero or superman is closely linked
with fascism's rejection of reason and intelligence and its emphasis on vision,
creativeness, and the will
J.
Stoicism
Stoicism is a philosophy
that flourished in Greek and Roman antiquity. The goal of all inquiry is to provide
man with a mode of conduct characterized by tranquility of mind and certainty
of moral growth. They also believed that some matters were within a person's
power to control and others were not. Within a person's power to control is the
will to act or not to act, to do or to avoid. Not within a person's power is
the nature of things and the laws that govern them. People should therefore
obey the rules of nature and respect the natural order of things. Stoicism also
preached the equality of all people since all of them are rational beings.
The stoics developed the idea of
cosmopolitanism, the idea that all persons are citizens of the same human
community. Human relations for them have
the greatest significance, for human beings shared a common element. That is,
since Logos (God) is in everything, then the Logos (reason). Is also
the same saying the reason is common to both God and person
K.
Existentialism
Existentialism is a philosophical
doctrine that focuses on the existing individual person.
It is concerned with the authentic concerns
of concrete existing individuals as they face choices and decisions in daily
life. It emphasizes the freedom of all
persons to make choices in a universe where there are no absolute values
outside man himself. Soren Kierkegaard, who argued that human existence was
marked off from all other kinds ofn man's power to choose, founded it. The
decision that man makes will make him the kind of person that he will and will
make him distinct totally from every other person. Thus, every value is always
dependent upon the free choices of every man.
I.
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism - theory of what is good and
a theory of what is right
1.
Theory of what is
right
Utilitarianism's
theory of what is right is known as consequentalism. It claims that what is a
morally right option on any circumstance is that option, which brings about the
most good, or the best consequences,
2. Theory of what is good
Utilitarian agree
that what is good is utility - human well-being or welfare. However, they
disagree as to how well-being or welfare is defined.
EASTERN
SOCIAL PHILOSOPHIES
A.
Buddhism
.
Buddhism originates from the experience of
the misery of life. Life, for the Buddhist, is caught in a labyrinth of changes
so much so that there is no peace to be found in this world. There is an
endless cycle of change, of birth and death and therefore, the only way for man
to attain peace is the state of "nirvana," or the fading out of
suffering. Thus Buddhism has a morality that is characterized as egocentric and
Individualistic and gives very little positive value to society. Buddhism
teaches the Eightfold Way (The right view, the right aspiration, the right
speech, the right action, the right livelihood/the right effort, the right
concentration, the right contemplation) and also the Four Noble Truths. The
four noble truths are the following:
The
universal fact of pain
The
origin of suffering
The
cessation of suffering
The
path, which leads to the cessation of suffering
B.
Confucianism
Confucianism aims for the restoration of
political order and social harmony and such will be possible if only people
would observe the following formula:
-
Chun-chun,
chen-chen; fu-fu, izu'izu
-
Ruler
ruler, minister minister;
-
Father
father, son son.
This advocates how:
A
ruler should behave as a ruler should behave
A
minister should behave as a minister should behave
A
father should behave as a father should
A
son should behave as a son should
Also, according to this philosophy the way
to attain virtues is through natural means: (a) being true to one's nature, and
(2) applying those principles in relationship. The objective is central
harmony. Confucianism is founded on the experience of the all-embracing harmony
between man and nature and is highly conservative. Confucius teaches that man
is the ruler since ft constitutes a social morality. Confucianism outlawed
speculation and emphasized practical ethics. Man's obligation is to preserve right
human relationships.
Founded by Kung Fu Tzu, which means the
Grand Master, also called "Ch'iu" (hill), Confucianism strongly
emphasizes the individual's place in society. It is interested in reforming
social life to rid government of its repressive tendencies.
Confucius propagated the idea of democracy.
According to him, rulers must serve the people's interests. He contends that
the rulers and officials should make the people affluent and then educate them.
He also provides primarily moral reasons for caring for the masses. The
majority of the masses is simple and thus will be loyal as long as they are
treated with authoritative humanity and live in material prosperity. That is,
as long as the government works to promote their interests, the masses will be
peaceful and do their work.
C.
Taoism
Taoism
is
a philosophical system strongly emphasizing man's place in nature. In contrast
to Confucianism, it is not concerned with society, except as something to move
away from.
Lao
Tzu
taught that the Tao is most fully revealed in tranquility neither through
action nor religious living. Virtue is attained by quiet submission to the
power of the Tao. The Tao cannot be defined.
Taoism stresses man's passive role in
nature. Founded on the experience of the dynamic force immanent in the
universe, which gives order and life and meaning to the totality of reality it
adhered to the vision of the human being's harmony with nature. However, it
viewed man as essentially passive called upon to harmonize himself with the natural
rhythms of things.
According to Chuang Tzu, humankind is
composed of two types: one is the ordinary mass of people; and the other, the
Perfect Man. The masses are the concrete manifestation of humanity. The Perfect
Man is its ideal form.
The social man is a microcosm, a
miniaturized version of the universe that contains all the elements necessary
to make up Heaven and Earth. The body is made up of all the physical elements.
The mind is composed of human nature, the spirit, and virtue. Its environment
and the classes of people around itself limit the human. Man's anguish is
caused by unfulfilled desires. Therefore, desire causes man's sinfulness. Each
person thinks, acts, and behaves as if his own mind were the standard. THE
reality of human and social existence is characterized by limitations given by
the environment, dependency on external objects and events and anguish. There
are four limits of human existence:
Man's
insignificant size
Bondage
Death
Delusion
D.
Islam
The word Islam means submission or
surrender — to the will of God, and the word Muslim means "given to
God." Islam is a community, a way of life, a culture and a civilization.
Central to its teaching is the belief that there is only one all-powerful, all-knowing
God (Allah), and this God created the universe. Islam also emphasizes that all
Muslims are equal before God thus providing a basis for a collective sense of
loyalty to God that transcends class, race, nationality, and even differences
in religious practice. Also, unlike most Christian sects, Islam clings to the
idea of faith plus good works.
Islam is centered on the Five Pillars of
Truth: profession of faith (shahada),
prayer (salat), alms giving (zakat), fasting (sawm), and pilgrimage (hajj).
Islam gives importance to social life. It
considers it a duty to attend to social problems and to struggle for the
benefit for all human beings. Being indifferent to such problem is considered
in Islam to be a grave sin
Islam believes that no society can survive
without rules and social regulations. It also believes that the goal of law Is
not only to bring about social order and discipline, but to maintain social
justice because without justice the order would not be durable and the masses
of the people would not tolerate injustice and oppression for ever, and in a
society not governed by justice most people would not have the opportunity for
desired growth and development and hence, the goal of man's creation and social
life would not be realized.
Also, from the Islamic viewpoint, social
laws should be such as to prepare the ground and context for the spiritual
growth and eternal felicity of the people. At the very least they should not be
inconsistent with spiritual development, for, in the view of Islam, the life of
this world is but a passing phase of the entire human life, which despite its
short duration, has a fundamental role in human destiny.
E.
Hinduism
The word Hindu was derived from
the Sanskrit word sindhu ("river"), the Persians called the Hindus by
that name, identifying them as the people of the land of the Indus. The Hindus
define their community as "those who believe in the Vedas" or
"those who follow the way (dharma) of the four classes (varnas) and stages
of life (ashramas)”.
The fundamental principles of Hinduism:
A. text: Vedas
B. philosophy:
Time
is degenerative- going from the golden age through two intermediate periods of
decreasing goodness, to the present age>~ and then another cycle again
Human
life is cyclic: after death, the soul leaves the body and is reborn in the body
of another person, animal, vegetable, or mineral
Three
classes of society {ashramas): Brahman (priest), Kshatriya (warrior), Vaisya
(general populace). Later, a fourth class was added, the Shudras after the
Indo-Aryans settled into the Punjab and began to move to down into the Ganges
Valley.
Three
stages of life (ashramas): brahmachari (chaste student), grthastha (the
householder), vanaprastha (forest-dweller). Later, a fourth ashrama was added
-* the saanyasi (renouncer)
Three
debts: study of the Veads, a son. and a sacrifice
Three
goals of the human beings (purusharthas): artha (material success). dharma
(righteous social behavior), kama (sensual pleasures). Later, when a fourth
ashrama was added, a counterpart goal was also added – moksha (released from
the entire process of samsara)
PHILOSOPHY
PART I: CONTENT UPDATE
Nature of
Philosophy
Nominal meaning: love of
wisdom. (It was derived from the Greek terms Philo, which means love, and
Sophia, which means wisdom.)
Real meaning: The
science and art of all things naturally knowable to man's unaided powers in so
far as these things are studied in their deepest causes and reasons The human
being's attempt to think speculatively, reflectively, and systematically about
the universe and the human relationship to the universe. It is the human
being's search for the ultimate explanations of the realities of life.
Major branches of Philosophy
Metaphysics -
deals with the nature of being and reality
Fundamental concepts: Substance, Essence, Truth, Space, Time, Causation,
Nature of God, Origin & purpose of the universe, Nature and purpose of
Man's existence, Body- Mind relation and the Problem of Freedom.
Epistemology-
Episteme (knowledge) Logos (science) -deals with human knowledge and the
Criteria for truth.
Fundamental concepts: What is Knowledge? Where does it come from?
How do we Acquire knowledge of right and wrong?, What is truth? Can
man's knowledge be true?
Axiology- the
area of Philosophy that specifically deals with the problem of human values
Fundamental concepts: What are Values? What are the important values to
be desired in living? Are these values rooted in reality? How can these values
be realized in our daily experience?
Logic-systematic
treatment of relationship of ideas
Fundamental concepts: Terms. Propositions, Syllogisms, Fallacies,
Validity of Arguments, Soundness of arguments and correct thinking, Inductive
and deductive thinking
Other branches of Philosophy
Cosmology-
theories of the nature and origin of the universe
Fundamental concepts; Evolutionism, Creationism, Space, time, motion and
causality
Philosophy of
Man/Philosophy of human person- deals with the nature and purpose of man.
Fundamental concepts: Body-Soul relation, Freedom and Determinism,
intellect and will
Social and
Political Philosophy - deals with the nature of society and socialization process.
Fundamental Concepts: Society, State, Governance, Laws and Culture,
Social Justice
Theodicy- the
study of the nature, essence and existence of God using human reason
Fundamental concepts: Deism, Agnosticism, Theism, Attributes of God
Aesthetics- the
study of the nature and appreciation of beauty
Fundamental concept: Order, Truth, Designs, Functionality, Proportion
Ethics the study
of the morality of Human Acts
Fundamental concepts: Voluntariness. Good life, Freedom of the will,
Concupiscence, Moral responsibility, Ethical standards
Epistemology
Criteria of
truth
1. Native
realism (James Me Cosh, Thomas Reid) - believes that reality is precisely what
as it appear to be. Adheres to the belief that "seeing is believing"
2. Feelings -
the belief that what one feels is the truth, that the best criterion of truth
is a hunch.
3, Custom and
tradition - this is used by many as a criterion of truth in matters pertaining
to morals, politics, dress etc.
4. Time - is
regarded as an excellent test if not the final test of truth.
5. Intuition -
"truth that comes from one knows not where". It is not a test of
truth but a source of truth
6. Revelation –
“Truth which comes from God". A source of truth and not a test of it
7. Instinct -
What is instinctive must by virtue of that fact be true since nature deem it
so. But most knowledge is beyond the bounds of instinct. It is not therefore a
test of truth
8. Majority, Plurality,
Consensus Gentium - The number of people who believes in the truth determines
its truthfulness, but truth is not necessarily dependent on how many believes
it to be true
9. Authority -
certain individuals who have mastered a field of study may be a criterion of
truth but authority gives only opinions which could be true or which could be
false
10.
Correspondence - a belief that when an idea agrees with its object, it is proof
of its truth. However, it is a definition of truth not a criterion
11. Pragmatism -
If an idea works then it is true, but not all truths works. It cannot be the
ultimate criterion of truth
12. Consistency
- means the absence of contradiction
13. Coherence- a
systematic consistent explanation of all the facts of experience. Its technical
name is reason, this is believe to be the ultimate criterion of truth
Philosophies, Theories and Movement in the Social
Sciences Education
• The present Philosophy of social sciences education is an admixture of
idealist and realist Philosophy. It has elements of essentialism, perennialism,
social traditionalism, social experimentalism, progressivism, logical
positivism and existentialism.
• It focuses on the social function of education, on individual's
development and his relationship to the social structure.
• It is concerned fundamentally with social change, the progressive
structuring of the social order, with insight into the traditions, arousing
interest in and sympathy toward social service, and developing efficiency in
adapting the individual to society.
1. Idealism
1.1 Nature
-
Idealism is a philosophy that proclaims the
spiritual nature of men and the universe, its basic viewpoint stresses the
human spirit, soul, or mind as the most important element in life.
-
It holds that the good, true and beautiful are
permanently part of the structure of the related coherent, orderly, and
unchanging universe.
-
All of reality is reducible to one fundamental
substance - Spirit. Matter is not real, only the mind is real
1.2 Aim of Idealist Education
-
The aim of idealistic education is to contribute to
the development of mind and self. The school should emphasize intellectual
abilities, moral judgments, aesthetics, self-realization, individual freedom,
individual responsibility and self-control.
1.3 Curriculum
-
The curriculum of Idealism is a body of
intellectual subject-matter, which is ideational and conceptual on subjects,
which are essential for the realization of mental and moral development
-
Subject matter should be made constant for all.
Mathematics, History and Literature rank high in relevance since they are not
only cognitive but value-laden
1.4 Methodology
-
Idealists encourage accumulation of knowledge and
thinking and must apply criteria for moral evaluation- Suggested methods are
questioning and discussion, lecture and the project, whether done singly or in
group. Although learning is a product of the learner's own activity, the
teaming process is made more efficient by the stimulation, which comes from the
teacher and school environment. The learner is immature and is seeking the
perspective into his own personality.
1.5 Role of
Teacher
-
The idealist teacher should be conversant with a
variety of methods and should use the particular method that is most effective
in securing the desired results. Teachers are revered persons central to the
educational process. They must be excellent mentally and morally in personal
conduct and convictions. They must exercise creative skills in providing
opportunities for pupils - mind to analyze, discover, synthesize and create.
They should see his role in assisting the learner to realize the fullness of
his own personality.
1.6 Implication
to Social Sciences Education
-
Idealism is often considered a conservative
philosophy of education because much of its thrust is to preserve cultural
traditions.
-
This is because of the concern for perennial and
ultimate truths and the notion that education is largely a matter of passing on
to the young the nation's cultural heritage.
-
There is great concern for morality and character
development
-
Idealistic education emphasizes the cognitive side,
intellectualism or elitist, to the detriment of the physical and affective side
of development.
-
Character development in idealistic philosophy was
pictured as:
o
The first rule to be learned by all students is
order.
o
Students must conform to rules and regulations and
repress everything that interferes with the function of the school.
-
Pupils must have their lessons ready on time, rise
and sit at a given signal, learn habits of silence and cleanliness.
Realism
2.1 Nature
-
Realism may be defined as any philosophical
position that asserts the objective existence of the world and beings in it and
relations between these beings independent of human knowledge and desires. The
knowability of these objects as they are in themselves and the need for
conformity to the objective reality in man's conduct.
-
Realism holds that reality, knowledge and value
exist independent of the human mind. For the realist, matter is real.
-
The most important part of realism is the thesis of
independence. Sticks, stones, trees exist whether or not there is a human mind
to perceive them.
-
Realists refer to those universal elements of man
that are unchanging regardless of time, place and circumstance.
-
Realists generally maintain a materialistic concept
of human nature biased toward social control and social order.
-
They tend to see the universe in terms of an
independent reality with its internal and systematic order; therefore, human
beings must adopt and adjust to this reality, and dreams and desires have to be
subsumed under its demand.
2.2 Aim
-
The aim of a realist education is to provide the
students with the essential knowledge that he will need to survive in the
natural world.
2.3 Curriculum
-
The curriculum is called the subject-matter
approach, which is composed of two basic components, the body of knowledge, and
the appropriate pedagogy to fit the readiness of the learner. The liberal arts
curriculum and the math science disciplines consist of a number of related
concepts that constitute the structure of the discipline.
2.4 Methodology
-
The teacher is expected to be skilled in both the
subject matter that he teaches and the method of teaching it to students.
-
Formal schooling means, transmission of knowledge
from experts to the young and immature.
-
The school's task is primarily an intellectual one
-
The administrator's role is to see to it that the teachers
are not distracted by recreational and social functions from performing their
intellectual task of cultivating and stimulating the teaming of students.
-
In the elementary level, emphasis is on the
development of skills for reading, writing, arithmetic, and study habits.
-
In the secondary and collegiate level, the body of
knowledge regarded as containing the wisdom of the human race with have to be
transmitted in an authoritarian manner.
-
Students will be required to recall, explain,
compare, interpret, and make inferences. Evaluation is essential, making use of
objective measures.
-
Motivation will be in the form of rewards to
reinforce what has been learned.
2.5 Role of
Teachers
-
The teacher is a person who possesses a body of
knowledge and who is capable of transmitting it to students.
-
Teaching should not be indoctrinating. Learning
should be interactive.
-
The teacher utilizes pupil interest by relating
subject matter to student experiences.
-
The teacher maintains discipline by reward and
controls the pupil by activity.
2.6 Implication
to Social Sciences Education
-
The universal elements in man make up the elements
in the education of man. Education implies teaching, teaching implies
knowledge, knowledge is truth, and truth is the same everywhere. Thus education
should be the same everywhere
-
Realists are concerned with the necessity of
student measuring up to the standard curriculum or external criteria of
excellence.
-
They believe that the" superior" students
should be given the arts and sciences while the "slower" students
should be given a narrow technical- vocational training
-
Realism favors a fact-based approach to knowledge.
This had led to the tradition and problem of "testing" including the
IQ as passport to a college education. The Teachers' board as a minimum
requirement for entry into the profession.
The realist
believed that hard work and discipline are considered "good" and the
student’s heads should be filled with "factual truth" so that they do
not come to a "bad end”
3. Essentialism
3.1 Nature
-
Essentialism, a conservative educational theory
rooted in idealism and realism, arose in response to progressive education. The
essentialists were concerned with a revival of efforts in the direction of
teaching the fundamental tools of learning as the most indispensable type of
education.
3.2 Aims
-
The essentialist have as their ultimate aim "
to fit the man to perform justly, skillfully and magnanimously all the offices,
both private and public, of peace and war"'
-
The indispensable cultural objectives of humanity,
the essentials, are goals that must be achieve -sometimes incidentally- but
more often by direct instruction. Informal learning helps, but this should only
be supplementary and secondary.
-
The essentialist believed that the essential
skills, knowledge and attitude needed by the individual in making has
adjustment to the realities of life should be systematically planned so that
these recognized essentials will be recognized.
-
The essentialists emphasize the need for a
curriculum that transmits significant race experiences and the need to present
this racial experience through organized subject matter courses.
-
Thus, reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar,
history, geography, hygiene, elementary science, drawing, language, art .manual
training, and domestic arts - all traditional subjects of the elementary
school- are given a new justification and emphasis as basic essential in the
training of children.
-
Among the common themes found in the essentialist
point of view are:
1. The elementary school curriculum should aim to cultivate basic tool
skills that contribute to literacy and mastery of arithmetical computation.
2. The secondary curriculum should cultivate competencies in History,
Mathematics, Science, English, and foreign languages. Mastering all these
subjects and skills prepare the student to function as a member of a civilized
society
3. Schooling requires discipline and a respect for legitimate authority;
and
4. Learning requires hard work and disciplined attention
3.4 Methodology
-
The essentialist method emphasizes habituation more
than experience, guidance more than incidentalism, discipline more than
freedom, effort more than interest, and self-examination more than
expression.
-
Essentialists do not believe In building up
generalization by the slow method of induction, but rather in properly guiding
pupils in a few hours or days in the acquisition of general laws and principles
then using them in the solution of immediate and pressing problems.
-
The essentialists are concerned with the most
effective method of forming habits and developing skills; thus, drill has a
definite place in the classroom.
-
The essentialists emphasize the necessity of
teaching pupils how to think systematically and effectively.
-
They believe that effective thinking cannot take
place by looking at the world en masse, or by picking up knowledge piecemeal.
-
Methods of systematic analysis and systematic
synthesis must be used; the essential elements of knowledge must be separated
from the worthless chaff, and these essentials must be organized into
meaningful wholes, with close attention to the interrelationships of each of
these entities.
-
The essentialists recognize that interest is a
strong motivating force of learning. Learning however, that is not immediately
appealing and interesting to the child should not be totally eliminated from
the child's education.
-
The more valuable and more permanent interests may
grow out of efforts that are at first disagreeable and monotonous.
3.5 Role of
Teachers
-
It is the duty of the teacher to help the learner
grow into these higher interests rather than limit all school activities to
those ephemeral things that appeal only to natural and childish interest.
During the immature years of childhood and youth there is a need for competent,
sympathetic and firm teachers to help them see the truth and to help them
adjust themselves to inexorable facts.
-
In this view, teachers should be restored to
instructional authority.
-
They must be well prepared and held accountable for
the children's failure to learn. Instruction should be geared to organized
learning.
-
The method of instruction should center on regular
assignments, homework, recitation, and frequent testing and evaluation.
3.6 Implication
to Social Sciences Education
-
Essentialists are particularly concerned with the
fundamentals of education, the skill and knowledge without which person cannot
be either individually or socially efficient.
-
They emphasize the authority of the teacher and the
value of a subject curriculum
.
-
The essentialist prescribed the following rubrics
for their educational program:
1. A fixed curriculum;
2. Certain minimum "essentials" literature, mathematics, history,
etc;
3. Preconceived educational values ;
4. Education as Individual adoption to an absolute knowledge which exist
independently of individual.
-
The essentialists believe that the intellectual
disciplines are the necessary foundation of modem life
-
The school has the responsibility to Channel the
accumulated experiences of humankind into organized coherent and differentiated
disciplines.
-
Mastering these basic disciplines will enable the
students to use them in solving personal, social and civic problems
Perennialism
4.1 Nature
-
Perennialism is an educational theory that Is
greatly influenced by the principles of realism. It has a conservative/
traditional view of human nature and education.
-
Perenniaiists contend that truth is universal and
unchanging, and. therefore, a good education is also universal and constant.
4.2 Aim
-
The perennialists have for their aim the education
of the rational person. The central aim of education should be to develop the
power of thought.
-
They view the universal aim of education as the
search for and dissemination of truth. They look up to the school as an
institution designed to develop human intelligence.
4.3 Curriculum
-
The perennialist view education as a recurring
process based on eternal truths; thus, the school's curriculum should emphasize
the recurrent themes of human life
-
It should contain cognitive subjects that cultivate
rationality and the study of moral, aesthetics, and religious principles to
develop the attitudinal dimension.
-
The perrenialist prefers a subject matter
curriculum, which includes history, language, mathematics, logic, literature,
the humanities, and science.
4.4 Methodology
-
As for the methods of teaching, the curriculum of a
perenniallst education would be subject-centered, drawing heavily upon the
disciplines of literature, mathematics, language, history, and the humanities.
-
The perenniaiists suggest that the best means to
attaining this enduring knowledge is through the study of great books of
Western Civilization
-
The method of study would be the reading and
discussion of these great works which, in turn, discipline the mind.
4.5 Role of
Teachers
-
The teacher, accordingly, must be one who has
mastered discipline, who is a master teacher in terms of guiding truth, and
whose character is beyond reproach.
-
The teacher is to be viewed as authority and his
expertise not to be questioned.
-
The role of the school becomes one of training
intellectual elite who will one day take charge of passing this on to a new
generation of learners.
4.6 Implication
to Social Sciences Education
-
Perennialism represents a conservative theoretical
view centered in the authority of tradition and the classics. Among its major
educational principles are:
1. Truth is universal and does not depend on the Circumstances of place,
time or person;
2. A good education involves a search for and an understanding of the
truth;
3. Truth can be found in the great work of civilization; and
4. Education is the liberal exercise that develops the intellect.
5. Sociological Movement
Sociological movement focused on the contribution of education to the
preservation and progress of society; this is called the social function of
education. Social educationists were concerned with the individual's
development and his relationship to the social structure.
5.1 Social traditionalism.
Aim
-
This aimed at giving all pupils an insight into
their traditions, arousing interest in and sympathy toward social service, and
developing efficiency in adapting the individual to society.
-
Tradition is a record of man's accomplishment and
the accumulation of human experience. Each generation acquires and transmits
traditions to preserve its continuity.
-
The school is seen as the agency that prepares an
individual for all phases of social life.
-
One of the purposes of education is the formation
of common
-
Habits of social life and the education of the
child away from crime, drugs, unemployment, diseases and other social
ills.
Types
-
Social education, in its broadest sense, covered
all types of education that would prepare the individual for adjustment to
society.
-
In its narrowest sense, social education referred
to the development of social communication skills, etiquette, and harmonious
human relationships.
-
The latter included training in the physical,
vocational, civic, domestic, vocational, moral, and religious, all essential in
the development of social efficiency.
Content
-
The school curriculum was supposed to teach for
real social living.
-
School activities were drawn from varied activities
in life.
-
The lower school level was expected to teach the
essentials of social living and the rudiments of etiquette.
-
Drills in arithmetic calculation, oral and written
language, hygiene, good manners, and art appreciation were important.
-
The high schools had to give experience in science
and math, language and history but emphasis should be on health, moral conduct,
home and leisure and the vocations.
-
In college, work travel and study replaced the
traditional academic subjects.
-
The results of social education brought about
extra-curricular activities in the school program. Extra-curricular activities,
when properly controlled and directed, were of value in providing experience in
various phases in life.
-
Athletics, dramatics, public speaking activities,
musical activities, and assemblies were all sources of training for the various
aspects of social life.
Method
-
Social communication, social cooperation, and
social science were the methods used in teaching the child to adjust to life.
-
The teacher worked with the social interests of the
child in mind to develop social consciousness.
-
Student's participations in school activities and
school government were effective methods of teaching leadership and
responsibility.
-
Students were taught cooperation rather than
competition; to face the class rather than the teacher, and to deal with small
groups for cooperative effort.
5.2 Social Experimentalism
Aim
-
The social experimentalists believe that the school
prepares for a progressive structuring of the social order since social
tradition was not concerned with social change.
-
The school should direct the pupil in learning to
meet the needs of a changing society, not only for immediate needs, but also
for future needs under changing social conditions
-
The experimentalists emphasized the training for
intelligence in all phases of human activity. Students should learn sources of
facts and realities of social conditions and problems and learn to verify,
weigh alternatives, and take sides on controversial issues. Students' emotions
had to be trained to intelligence for beneficial social results.
Content
-
The social sciences came to the foreground among
the experimentalists because of the emphasis put on the teaching of
controversial issues; the social, economic and political activities of the
local community were used as materials for teaching.
-
Extra -curricular activities and field trips were
dominant strategies of teaching since they were pupil-planned, pupil dominated
and centered. Their purpose was to prepare students for social planning.
6. Progressivism.
-
The educational theory of progressivism is in
contrast to the traditional views of essentialism and perennialism.
-
This movement is based largely in the philosophy of
pragmatism or as Dewey puts it instrumentalism.
-
It stressed the view that all learning should
center on the child's interests and needs.
-
Progressive education is based on a philosophy
based on experience, the interaction of the person with his environment.
-
The end product of education was growth- an
on-going experience which led to the direction and control of subsequent
experience.
-
Progressive education must use the past experiences
to direct future experiences.
Aim
-
The aim of progressive education is to meet the
need of a growing child.
-
The school should be a pleasant place for learning.
-
It objects to extreme reliance on bookish methods
of instruction, memorization of factual data, the use of fear as a form of
discipline and the four -walled philosophy of education that isolated the
school from the realities of life .
Content
-
Progressive education was not interested in a
prepared, prescribed curriculum to transmit knowledge to students
-
Curriculum must come from the child so that
learning would be active, exciting, and varied.
-
The contents of the subject are done by the teacher
and the students as a group project or a cooperative effort. The teacher served
as facilitator.
-
Progressive education is characterized by the
following contributions to education:
1. Emphasis on the child as the learner, rather than the subject matter
2. Stress on activities and experiences, rather than on textbook reliance
and memorization
3. Cooperative learning, rather than competitive lesson learning
4. Absence of fear and punishment for disciplinary purposes
7. Reconstructionism.
-
Reconstructionism is more concerned with social
change rather than the individuality of the child.
-
It believes that schools should originate policies
and progress, which would bring about reform of the social order. Teachers
should use their power to lead the young in the program of social reform.
-
Educational philosophies must be culturally based
and man can re-shape his culture so that it promotes optimum possibilities for
development.
-
Society has to reconstruct its values, and
education has a major role to play in bridging the gap between the values of
culture and technology.
-
It is the task of the school to encourage the
critical examination of the cultural heritage and find the elements that are to
be discarded and those that have to be modified.
Aim
-
The aim of Reconstructionism is to awaken the
student's consciousness about social problems and to actively engage them in
problem solving.
-
Teachers and schools should initiate a critical
examination of their own culture and should identify controversies and
inconsistencies and try to solve real life problems.
-
The Curriculum should include learning to live in a
global milieu.
-
Reconstructionism proposes educational policies
related to national and international problems as a means of reducing world
conflict.
-
The school becomes the center of discussions of
controversies
Method
-
The methodology employed is problem oriented.
-
Students and teachers participate in discussion of
issues and in a definite program of social, educational, political, and
economic change as a means to total cultural renewal so that they will learn to
live in a global village.
1. Philosophical
Analysis.
-
Philosophical analysis is a method of examining the
language used in making statements about knowledge, education and schooling and
of seeking to classify it by establishing its meaning with the formulation of
educational goals and policies.
-
The aim is to reduce statements about education to
empirical terms. The function of philosophy is to formulate the rules that are
the bases of language. For education should be attuned to the logical
complexities of language.
-
The analysts prefer to look at what we mean by
education in the first place and what advantages may accrue from the clarified
concepts of education.
2. Existentialism
-
Existentialism is a way of viewing and thinking
about life in the world so that priority is given to individualism and
subjectivity.
-
The existentialists believe that the human being is
the creator of his own essence; he creates his own values through freedom of
choice or individual preference.
-
The most important kind of knowledge is about the
realities of human life and the choices that each person has to make.
-
Education is the process of developing awareness
about the freedom of choice and the meaning and responsibility for one's
choice.
Emerging Themes of Contemporary Educational
Philosophy
Contemporary philosophical themes have direct bearing not only to the
social sciences education but to education as a whole. These are the
following:
1. Man as embodied spirit - This concept
rejects the definition of man as a rational animal or a composite of body and
soul. The problem with this definition is that it is dualistic and separates
the single reality that is man into two realities; matter and spirit.
Rationality is emphasized to the detriment of animality. Yet it is animality
that defines man.
Phenomenologist
sees man as an embodied subjectivity - unique core or center, source, depth,
wellspring of initiative and meaning. It involves the rational, the affective,
and the emotional - The total man.
Since education is the process of developing man-the embodied
subjectivity, Development must be seen now as the total development of man.
Education is not anymore seen as a conglomeration of disciplines with their own
individual tasks of cultivating a specific part of man. Education should not
look down upon material development as merely a steppingstone to rational or
spiritual development but an essential part of it.
2. Man as a being in the world. Each
embodied spirit is in his own world, which form a network of meanings, in and
on and around which man organizes his life it is different from environment for
this is only proper to animals. When we speak of man we speak of his world not
environment for it is only man that gives meaning to an environment through
intentionality of consciousness.
Social Sciences Education likes to dwell on cumulative justice or
injustice yet contemporary man is more aware of a complex world of social
justice or injustice and of unjust structures. We should therefore address in
the social sciences an awareness of unjust structures, of internal change that
need to be situated, of the need to humanize the world we live in by our work.
3. Man as Being - with: the interhuman and the
socius. The worid of man is not just a world of things but also the worid
of fellowmen. True education if it is to be different from propaganda is such
an unfolding to bring out in the other, the student, a certain disposition of
him to see for himself the true, the good and the beautiful. Society is not
something that one enters into by contract to achieve some common end, as
Rousseau and other social contract theorists put it The social is within each
man: man does not live in society, society lives in man. It is borne out of the
historicity of man. Man carves a meaning from his past in view of some project
in the future thus man is a cultural being. Thus social consciousness must have
a bearing in the philosophy of education for education cannot just be based
simply on ultimate ends, on absolute, eternal truths as the perreniatists put
it. Neither can we be simply content with a general formulation of educational
objective as preparing the student to become good citizen in a democracy, since
the universal truth exists in the particular. Thus any Philosophy of education
must be predicated on a clearly formulated conception of a way of life in a definite
society as Isaac Berkson says.
4. Man as a person and his crowning activity is
love, which presupposes justice. The final aim
of education, formal or informal is becoming a person. The individuality of man
is one that he has become freely and consciously in time, in the worid. This
task consists in integration, in becoming whole and in the fundamental option
to love. Thus we can no longer conceive of educational objectives in terms of
personal development or self-realization with no end beyond itself. Education
must include social aims for self-realization is no longer possible apart from
socialization. Our educational policies must aim at specific personal and
social values: of justice, love, and honesty. Total development is not just the
education of the mind but also the heart and we can educate the heart only by
being exemplars of what we teach. The bearer of moral values is the person
himself.
Other themes of Contemporary Philosophy
The task of man is man
himself. All other tasks, responsibilities and obligations
are simply to support man become the person he has the potential to become. Man
is an embodied spirit and thus he is obligated to develop the total man. His
having a body makes him an individual with material needs and desires. He is a self
who relates with other selves in order to satisfy these material needs, in the
quest for things that will satisfy his needs, he develops social relationships
for he lives through-the-other and he is not only a self but a self –in
community—a person who transcends materiality. Thus he develops interhuman
relationships, the I-thou or the relationship of a neighbor. This relationship
is not limited to the sharing of material things but the sharing of persons In
a genuine dialogue.
Being as opposed to seeming. True interhuman relationship must transcend seemingness. It must go
beyond the mask that we create to make us acceptable to others. We must be true
to our being by relating to others with outmost sincerity and genuine
presentation of who really we are. Our relationship must be characterized by
openness and genuine acceptance of our nature and must be devoid of
pretensions. It is only when we are true to each other that we are able to
accept each other in an interhuman realm.
Person making, present. A man must be open and willing to freely give himself in an interhuman
relation. He must b© "there" to the other. The "thereness"
may not be physical. It may be empathy or sympathy with the other, or simply
the willingness to be one with the other - a commitment of unity and mutual
support.
Unfolding as opposed to
imposition. Our relationship with our fellowmen must be
characterized by mutual unfolding of oneself. A free personal relation of one's
true being. A mutual actualization of one's true potentials. The interhuman
relations should never and cannot be imposed because imposition is a mark of
Individuality and selfishness. We should not force the other to reveal himself
to us or to become what we want them to become for they are the end in
themselves and not the means. They are persons not things. The decision to
reveal oneself must come from the person and not be imposed by others for
interhuman relations are free interactions between and among persons who
voluntarily choose to be with the other. What we could do is to provide the
necessary climate for his unfolding.
Genuine Dialogue. This is the turning to the partner that takes place in all truth that
is turning of being. Genuine dialogue is the mutual sharing between persons.
This happens when one person beyond the world of seeming centers into
communication with the other being.
Summary of Specific Points of the Different Themes
Presented
1 A human being is a social being and an
inter-human being. He cannot live by himself for he depends on others for
the things he needs in order to survive. He is not self sufficient thus he
relates with the material world and with his fellowmen in his pursuit of the
material things that will satisfy the needs of his body.
2. But a human being is not only a body.
He Is an embodied spirit and therefore his relationship is not limited only to
the physical, bodily or social realm but also to the realm of the inter-human.
3. For a human being is primarily a person who
becomes actuated through relations. Togetherness is a value that involves
the existence .of a human being not just a being-through-others but more so as
a being-for-others.
4. A human being exists through the other
by using the products that are fruit of the labors of others. However, he also
works for others as manifested in the service oriented work like the teaching
profession.
5. Thus, human beings relate to each one not only
for material things but for the sharing of persons that ultimately actualizes
his potentials. The interhuman relationship is achieved by transcending
seemingness and entering into a genuine dialogue with the other through an
I-thou relationship. This relationship is founded on the true nature of person,
the willingness to make himself present and the unfolding of the true self in the
mutual sharing of persons. It is through this relationship that he fulfills his
nature and helps others fulfill theirs in a community of persons journeying
towards their actualization.
6. Togetherness as a focal point of values:
human existence has a historical character, we need others to enter into the
human world of meaning and to make it our own, being together is a fundamental
value which gives authentic fulfillment in our life.
7. Our existence is an existence for one
another. We exist for others, we strive to be significant to others, and
our existence is meaningful only If others accept it as meaningful,
8. The family system is the locus of
interaction between the individual and the society. If development is to be
a human development st must foster the integration of the family. Participative
decision making process and a feedback mechanism is imperative.
9. According to
Habermas, economic development cannot be
divorced from moral development
10. Social formation or transformation cannot
be brought about by class conflicts but by bi-dimensional leaning process.
Economic liberation is only a step to total liberation
11. Peace and order situation is built on
freedom not on constraint; it is built on human values which, is essential
to moral quests and to politics. Truth, love, freedom and its practice.
12. Thus, there is a need for equal and equitable
distribution of wealth-Social Justice.
13 Social Justice was traditionally equated
with legal justice- but what is legal may not necessarily be just, then
justice was equated with the reasonable and understood now in the context of
passion.
14 Social Justice as a virtue means the habit
whereby a man renders to each one his due by a constant and perpetual will
15 As a value, Social Justice is properly the
object of man's intentional; feeling and is linked intimately with other values
of truth, love and the dignity of person.
16. Social Justice is legal justice guided by
the spirit of love and the search for truth and should be side by side with the
value of a person.
17. Social Justice must become more important
than commutative justice
Emerging Social Values Relevant to Education
1.
Personalization- The primacy of the human person. Man is a person and his
crowning activity is love, which presupposes justice. The stress is towards the
personalistic character of education.
2. Socialization
- Man exists through the other and for others. The task of man is man himself
and he becomes actuated through the others. Personalization and socialization
are but two sides of a single process in education, and in life.
3. Existential
Dialogue – presupposes an encounter, an invitation to authentic being
existential presence, and existential union to create a community of persons.
4. Authentic
Being- Being as opposed to seeming, ah unfolding as opposed to imposition.
Education must bring about the true being of an individual person.
5. The Human
World- The world of man is a world of meaning. Man is a being in the world.
Education must help man gives meaning to his world and the world of others, ft
must be in context of the students' world
6. Convergence
of worlds and synergy-man is a subjectivity incarnating itself in a converging
world that defines his essence. The phenomenology of the we-experience Is a
reality that education must stress.
7. Community- as
a union of persons living an authentic existence with love, truth and justice.
Schools must become communities where total human development is possible.
8.
Vigilance-critical, moral, political vigilance
Implications to Education of the Themes Presented
1. Education
must be based on the supremacy of the human person, thus its aims must be the
total development of man in the context of his world.
2. Education
must be a "we experience" where existential dialogues of authentic
being, convergence of worlds and synergy are possible.
3. Education
should not only be viewed as an investment of human capital or consumption but
a meaningful becoming borne out of reasonable and responsible exercise of
freedom.
4. Education is
for personalization and socialization not only for life but for a meaningful
life.
5. The teaching
profession must really be promoted in the context of the embodied spirit. The
flight of teachers in terms of economic, political, social and academic aspects
must be addressed. Make teachers motivated motivators. ;
6. The affective
and the emotional aspects must be developed together with the rational aspect
of man. The student must be viewed as a totality and subject fields are simply
part of this totality.
World
History
PART
I: CONTENT UPDATE
I.
NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS AND VALUE OF HISTORY
A.
History is the story of man through the ages, his failures as well as
his achievements
B.
Nature of History
- It attempts to assess, interpret and give recognition to the achievements of people
- It is constant controversy because historians view events from different perspectives
- Historical interpretations vary because events are considered in terms of its occurrence in time and place.
C.
Characteristics of History as a Discipline
Content-oriented
Process
oriented
Value
oriented
D.
Value of History
Best expressed in
this saying "Knowing the past makes it easier to understand the present
and less difficult to visualize the future".
E.
Elements of History
Place
(Geography) - location, topography, etc. affect economic development,
scientific advancement, political and social systems are belief system evolved
by men
Time
- people's achievement and failures are judged in the context of the period in
which they live in.
Man
- the dynamic factor in History. The chief cause of the human actions is due to
the nature of human being itself.
II.
PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD:
Primitive
Times.
A.
Paleolithic Age
B.
Neolithic Age
C.
Metal Age
III.
HISTORIC PERIOD:
Traces the development of civilization.
Ancient
Period
ASIA
and AFRICA = cradles of civilization
1.
Early civilizations developed in the river valleys
A. Mesopotamian
civilization (or Fertile Crescent) - along the banks of the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers
B. Egyptian
civilization - along the banks of the Nile River in Africa
C. Indian civilization
- in the valleys along the Indus River
D. Chinese
civilization - along the yellow river (or Huang Ho River)
2
Early religions originated in Asia
A. Hinduism-India -
B. Zoroastrianism -
Iran (formerly Persia)
C. Judaism - Israel
(formerly Palestine)
D. Christianity -
Israel (formerly Palestine)
E.
Islamism
- Saudi Arabia
F.
Buddhism
- India
3.
Important achievements or contributions of Ancient world to civilization
a. Oriental/Eastern world
1) Mesopotamia or Fertile Crescent -- comprised
of different groups
Sumerians
- invention of wheels; irrigation system; cuneiform writing
Babylonians
- unification of city states in the Fertile Crescent under Hammurabi and
formulation of the Code of Hammurabi
Assyrians
- organized or highly centralized government
Chaldeans
- under Nebuchadnezzar, rebuilt the City of Babylon; built the Hanging Gardens;
made Hebrew captive in what was known as the Babylonian Captivity
Hebrews
- settlers in Palestine (presently Israel) from the tribe of Abraham who spread
the monotheistic idea (worship of one God Yahweh); Moses, a descendant of
Abraham was given the Mosaic Law (Ten Commandments) by God
Phoenicians
- settlers of Phoenicia (presently Lebanon) who were known as ancient world's
great maritime traders who gave us the alphabet of 22 letters (known as
Phonetic alphabet)
Persians
- established the first world empire whose territory is presently known as
Iran; adopted the teaching of Zoroaster
2) Egypt
Built the great
pyramids; invented a form of writing known as hieroglyphics; known for
mummification; devised a calendar of 365 days
3) India
Earliest
inhabitants were Dravidians who had an organized system of settlements in
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Aryan invasion and their settlement along the Indus
River valley later gave them identity as Hindus.
Hinduism evolved
from the merging of Dravidian and Aryan manner of worship, main features of
which are reincarnation and a rigid social class known as Caste System.
4) China
Name derived from
Chin dynasty founded by Shih Huang Ti who was also responsible for the
construction of the Great Walls. China is also credited for the invention of
printing press; for requiring civil service exams for government officials;
invented gun powder; produced silk and was known for its great philosophers,
Confucius (golden rule); Lao Tzu (Taoism) and Mencius.
b.
Western World
1)
Greece
A. Hellas - early name
and its civilization was termed Hellenic
B. Athens and Sparta -
famous city states (polis)
C. Homer - famous
author of (Iliad and Odyssey)
D. Solon, Cleisthenes
and Pericles - famous Athenian reformers who laid the foundation of a
democratic system of government
E.
Famous
/ Significant events:
-
Persian
war - Athens led the Greeks in repulsing Persia
-
Petoponnesian
War" was fought between rival Greek states Athens and Sparta. Sparta
prevailed
-
Macedonian
invasion - invasion of "barbaric" Macedonians led by Philip II who
eventually became Master of Greece. His son Alexander the Great succeeded him.
F.
Golden
Age of Greece - 5th to 4th Century BC) - attained by Athens after the Persian
War. Famous personalities: Pericles, statesman, Demosthenes, orator, Socrates,
Plato and Aristotle, philosophers; Aeschylus, Sophocles, Aristophanes
(dramatists); Herodotus (Father of History), Thycydides and Xenophon -
historians; Colonium, architect of the famous Parthenon
G. Alexander the Great
- Successor of Philip of Macedonia, tutored by Aristotle and extended Greek
empire to the East. He was responsible in blending Hellenic culture with the
East and such combination was referred to as Hellenistic culture. After his
death, the empire broke up into Egypt, Syria and Macedonia and by 150 BC the
Romans conquered Greece.
2) Rome
- Romulus - legendary founder of Rome in 753 BC
- Etruscans - established a strong monarchy in the 6th century but their autocratic rule led to their downfall when the Romans overthrew them
- Romany established a Republic
- Two classes of people: Patricians and Plebeians
- Senate - the ruling body in the Republic but dominated by Patricians (upper class)
- Twelve Tables -a legislation which gave Plebeians (lower class) equal participation in government
- Punic Wars-fought by Rome against Carthage and resulted in Rome's acquisition of Spain a group of continued the
- First Triumvirate (Julius Caesar, Pompey, Cassius) military leaders responsible for the expansion of Rome
- Second Triumvirate (Anthony, Lepidus, Octavius) work started by the First Triumvirate
- Octavius (later known as Augustus Caesar) - was responsible for further expansion of Rome; bestowed the title "Prince?" (First citizen); crowned the first emperor of the Roman Empire under whose reign. PAX ROMANA prevailed
- Weak successors later split the empire into two: Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire (later known as Byzantine Empire.
- Fall of Rome (476 A.D.) was due to the attack of Teutonic Germanic tribes. Only the Western Empire fell. Eastern Roman Empire gained strength and later on flourished as the Byzantine Empire.
Medieval
Period
1.
Dark Ages - ushered in the Middle Ages. Barbarians from Germany
dominated the Western Roman Empire after Its fall thus the grandeur of Rome was
lost.
2.
Franks - barbaric tribe that settled in Gaul (presently France). Their
conversion to Christianity inspired them to restore Europe into a civilized
world again. Charles Martel defended Europe from being dominated by the
Moslems, Under Charlemagne; France expanded its territory at the same time
spreading the Christian faith. In recognition of his work for the Church, he
was crowned by the Pope and was given the title Emperor of the Holy Roman
Empire.
3.
Supremacy of the Christian Church
a.
Pope,
the head of the Church was looked up to by rulers of kingdoms
b.
Church
was responsible in reviving education because monasteries had kept literary
works and works of arts
c.
The
Church through its officials received material favors from monarchs and
noblemen such that the Church became wealthy.
4.
Feudalism
social,
economic and political system
characterized
by strong lord and vassal relationship where the lord gave protection to the
vassal and the vassal rendered services to the lord (act of fealty)
Chivalry
- in reference to the trait expected of a Knight where he had to manifest
refinement in manners and courage and commitment in the defense of his lord.
Manorial
system - where economic activities revolve around agriculture to generate
income for the lord.
5
Crusades
A series of
military expeditions by the Christians of Western Europe during the 11th and
13th century to take back the Holy Land (Jerusalem) from the Muslims.
6.
Guild System
Modem
Period
1.
Renaissance - this movement to revive the study of Graeco-Roman classics
ushered in the modern times. Humanism of the Greeks and Romans was revived such
that liberalism characterized this period.
2.
Age of Revolutions
a. Intellectual Revolution
• started with the age of enlightenment or age
of reason
b. Scientific
Revolution
• where discovery and inventions took place
This ushered in the Age of Discovery and exploration of territories.
c. Industrial Revolution
• marked by change in economic life. Hard labor was replaced by machineries.
Industrial Revolution started in England and it is still in progress today.
Commercial Revolution was an offshoot of Industrial Revolution.
d. Political Revolution
• This revolution is aimed at changing
government. This was an offshoot of the spread of liberal ideas. Two Famous
revolutions; French Revolution (1789-1799); American Revolution (1775-1783).
e. Religious Revolution
• Reformation - a move started by Wycliffe and
Hus and pursued by Martin Luther aimed at reforming some practices of the
Christian Church.
• Counter-reformation - a movement undertaken
by the Catholic Church to reform its own ranks.
GLOBAL
WARS
World War I - immediate cause
was the assassination of Archduke Frances Ferdinand of Austria on June 28,
1914. Warring groups: Triple Entete (Allied Powers) composed of England, France
and Russia; Triple Alliance (Central Powers) composed of Germany, Austria and
Turkey. United States declared neutrality but joined the Allied Powers when
Germany torpedoed the British ship "Lusitanian" where several
Americans were on board.
World War II (1939-1945) - war
of ideology (Democracy vs. Totalitarianism). Immediate cause was invasion of
Poland by Hitler on September 1, 1939. Warring groups were: Allied Powers
(England, France and Russia) and Axis Powers (Germany, Italy and Japan). Axis
powers advocated Totalitarianism (Hitler's Nazism; Mussolini's Fascism and
Hirohito's Totalitarianism). United States entered the war in 1941 when Japan
bombed its biggest military base in the Pacific on December 8, 1941. US entry
turned the tide of the war in favor of the Allied Powers to where US sided.
Germany and Italy readily surrendered in early 1945- War finally ended after US
decided to drop atomic bombs at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 when
Japan refused to peacefully surrender.
Postwar
Period
- characterized by cold war between US (democracy) and USSR (communism). Cold
War is a state of diplomatic tension or war of nerves without resulting to
actual fighting. Struggles for supremacy between US and USSR were manifested in
Korean War (North and South Korea). Benin Crisis (East and West Germany);
Vietnam War (North and South Vietnam); Space race; Arms Race.
In 1949
Mainland China came under communist rule when Mao TseTung successfully
entrenched himself in power, President Chang Kai-Shek was forced to go in exile
in Taiwan (Formosa) and continued to administer the nationalist government
there. This conflict between Mainland China and Taiwan raised the issue of
"One China or Two China policy".
League
of Nation was replaced by United Nations in October 24, 1945.
1991 saw the
disintegration of USSR when Mikhail Gorbachev advocated the "glasnost and
"perestroika". East and West Germany also united.
As the world moved towards the 21st
century, globalization was pursued. The five areas emphasized are:
1. Globalization of
markets
2. Globalization of
communication
3. Globalization of
culture
4. Globalization of
ideology
5. Political
globalization
September
11, 2001
- the world was shaken when the World Trade Center in New York City US was
destroyed where thousand of people died. Suspected brain of such terrorist
attack was Osama Bin Laden who to this day is still being hunted.
Asian Studies
PART I: CONTENT UPDATE
I. Asia:
Geographical features and its development
Geographical Features
World's largest continent (17,139,000 sq. miles –
nearly1/3 or the earth’s land).
Geographically it is compact and unified
Boundaries: Ural mountains from Europe; Red Sea and
Suez Canal from Africa
It is a continent of physical contrast Mt. Everest,
world's highest mountain (29,028 ft); Dead Sea (1,292 ft. below sea level) as
the lowest
Term Asia was derived from an early Aegean term
ASER which meant "sunrise". ASIA was first used by Pindar, a Greek
poet.
Regional Divisions of Asia
South Asia - centered on the Indian subcontinent.
It includes India, Pakistan. Ceylon, Afghanistan, Himalayan kingdoms of Nepal,
Bhutan and Indian protectorate, Sikkim
Southeast Asia -- a relatively recent term that
came into usage during World War II. It covers Burma (Myanmar), Thailand. Laos,
Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei and Philippines
East Asia - China and Taiwan (Formosa), Korea,
Japan. This region is more often referred to as Far East by the Westerners
because it is the part of Asia
Southwest Asia - known to Westerners as the Near
East for these are countries nearest to Europe. More recently, Westerners refer
to this region as Middle East for it is midway between Western Europe and East
Asia. These include Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Saudi
Arabia, and Yemen. People's Republic of South Yemen, Kuwait and the Tracial
States.
B. Asia in World History
Asia is the biggest continent
It has very important economic potentials (varied
resources)
It also has demographic potentials - more than half
of the world's population is in Asia where there is low death rate. high birth
rate and longer life expectancy
Asia was the seat of the world's civilization
Asia's nationalism is a powerful force which is
shaping the future of Asia and the world
Asia is the home of religions
C. Pre-historic Asia
1. Earliest man
-
Asia is said to be the place which has yielded the
greatest number of fossils of simian species. Ramapithecus fossils were
discovered in Pakistan and in the Yunnan Province in China. Ramapithecus
fossils is said to be the closest to man.
-
Earliest man's capacity for production was Shown
through the development of tools. Technology divides the evolutionary period of
culture into:
·
Stone Age
·
Bronze Age
·
Iron Age
-
Activities engaged in during Stone Age: food
gathering, hunting. Mastery of fire was a great step in man's emancipation from
the environment
2. Peopling of the Pacific was
the greatest feat of colonization. Migration took place in Southeast Asia,
Australia and its island neighbors in the great Oceans (Melanesia, Polynesia,
Micronesia)
D. Birth of Civilization
Bronze Age (3,000 BC - 1800 BC) saw the birth of
civilization
Early civilization started in the river valleys
Tigris-Euphrates
- Mesopotamia
Nile
- Egypt
Indus
- India
Yellow River -
China
Characteristics / Indicators of Civilization
existence of political system
division of labor / occupation became specialized
system of writing
organized trade
existence of class structure
monumental architecture
representational art
Development of religions
a. Hinduism - India
b. Buddhism - India
c. Christianity - Israel
d. Islamism - Saudi
Arabia
e. Judaism - Israel
f. Zoroastrianism - Persia (presently Iran)
g. Shintoism - Japan
E. Warrior
Groups Responsible for the Unification of the Peoples of Asia
1. HUNS (from Neolithic Period to about 1200
A.D.) also known as Hsiung Nus -
Horse riding people, semi-nomadic who attempted to move towards the
fertile lands of China. They were based in Mongolia then extended to Manchuria,
Central Asia and even reached as far as the Slavic territories to Germany and
Spain in the 5th century.
Greatest leader was Attila who upon reaching Rome was persuaded by Pope
Leo the Great to give up his plans to take Rome.
2. MONGOLS
Based in Central Asia (near Lake Baal), they lived in small groups of
few families. Basic social and political units were patriarchal dans: spiritual
life was focused on loyalty to cian. Polygamy necessitated the acquisition of
wives outside of the clan and in most cases, wives were obtained through
seizure.
Genghis Khan (or Chinggis Khan) was formerly known as Temujen. He
acquired the name Genghis or Chinggis (meaning "universal ruler")
after successful conquest were made by him. His empire extended as far as
Middle East and Europe. They were noted for espionage and psychological warfare
3. OTTOMAN TURKS
– 11TH Century
Original home near Gobi dessert, Siberia and Turkestan.
"Ottoman" was derived from the third caliph Osman. They moved
westward into Europe. Great leader was Sulaiman.
Contribution of the Warrior Groups:
1. Advanced the knowledge of
metallurgy
2. Evolved different political
systems
3. Fostered international
trading
F. Development
of Empires
1. Persian Empire (West Asia)
Recognized as the first biggest empire, especially during the time of
Cyrus, Captivity of Babylon, the capital of the Chaldean empire in 539 BC
signified the ascendancy of this Aryan race over the older cultures. The empire
included the Iranian Plateau, the Fertile Crescent, Anatolia, Sogdania, Egypt
(conquered by Cambyses). Darius moved westward through the Balkans only to be
repulsed by the Greeks in the famous Battle of Marathon. Eastward, Persian
reached as far as Punjab in India.
-
Persian empire was known for its organized
political system where the empire was divided into political units known as
satrapes ruled by satraps. This satrapes could be the equivalent of present day
provinces.
-
Zoroastrianism was advocated most especially during
the time of Darius, when he declared that sovereignty was granted to him by
Ahura Mazda because he advocated this god's teaching which was to act
righteously and justly to all men.
-
Lengua franca was Aramaic, serving as language of
official communication
-
Persia developed a system of communication by
providing road network where messengers of the Great King rode back and forth
from satrapes
2. Indian Empire (South Asia)
-
Indus valley civilization (Harappa and Mojendro
Daro) was disintegrating in 1500 BC when Aryans entered north-west of India.
Aryans or Indo- Aryans were descendants of Indo-Europeans (from North Iranian
plateau)
-
Empire building was credited to the Mauryan Dynasty
(321-183 B.C.), although to some historians, the Nanda dynasty laid the
foundation of empire building but this was cut short by Chandragupta Maurya who
usurped the throne and in him the imperial idea materialized.
-
Political system was similar to that of Persia
where the empire was divided into provinces for administrative purposes.
-
Hinduism evolved - which was a religion that
blended the aborigines (Dravidians) manner of worship and the Aryans religious
beliefs and practices.
-
Brahmannical theories influenced the
characterization of Kingship
-
Caste system was institutionalized where Indian
society was divided into Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra.
-
In 6th century BC, opposition to the rigidity of
the Caste system led to the development of Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhist
propagated a new concept of Dharma which emphasized tolerance and non-violence.
-
During the reign of Asoka (3rd century BC) Buddhism
was accepted because he himself had become a zealous follower. He used the
Buddhist religious principles for secular purposes such that his reforms were
focused on humanity in internal administration and the abandonment of
aggressive war. He termed his territorial expansion as conquest of
Righteousness.
G. Development
of Trade
-
Commerce between Europe and Asia began as early as
the first century A.D.
-
Trade / Commerce was conducted through land routes
and sea routes
-
Trade centers between 200 AD to 1500 AD were:
1. Mediterranean - West Asian Trade Complex
2. Central Asia Trade Complex
3. Strait of Malacca - Indo China Trade Complex
4. Indian Ocean Trade Complex
-
Effects of the expansion of Trade
1. Spread of sericulture or silk culture (The Chinese were called
"Seres" or "Serices" by the Romans. These two terms may
have originated from the Chinese word for silk)
By the 3rd century A.D. Korea and Japan acquired the knowledge of
sericulture and by the 6th century Byzantium teamed the secret of sericulture
2. Buddhism spread to China and to the rest of Southeast Asia and Far East
3. Christianity and Islamism found their way to China and other parts
of Asia
4. By 7th century centers of power were:
Tang Dynasty - China
Islam - West Asia
Byzantine (Turkey) - West Asia
5. Trade played an important role in defining Asia and Asian civilization
to the Western word:
Earliest reference to Asia was made by Herodotus
who wrote about the "nomad synethians who dwelt in Asia"
Western world perceived Asia as the source of silk,
spices and various exotic products
Asia and Europe were linked. Goods were exchanged
and migration of people took place
Asian religions were spread to different parts of
the world
Culture was enriched
II. Asia's
Transition
A. Age of Exploration and
Discovery in Europe
1. European countries set out to explore lands for economic and military
reasons.
2. Territories greatly affected were the Americas, Africa and Asia.
B. Imperialism in Asia
Most countries in Asia came
under colonial rule particularly those in Southeast Asia, except Thailand
China was under "sphere
of influence."
Korea (hermit Kingdom) and
Japan went out into isolation to avoid the influences of western countries but
eventually were opened to allow Western countries to trade with them.
C. Asia's involvement with the
West dragged her into 2 global wars. In World War II Japan actively led the war
in the Pacific on the side of the Axis Powers. Japan occupied most of the
territories in Southeast Asia.
D. After World War ft, colonies
occupied by Japan came again under Western rule but were eventually given
independence. Korea was divided; so with Vietnam due to ideology (Democracy
advocated by USA and Communism by USSR)
E. Experiences from colonial
rule changed the outlook of most people in Asia.
III. Great
Contribution of Asia to Civilization
A. Architecture and Engineering:
-
Great Walls - China (initial construction by Shin
Huang Ti)
-
Taj Mahal - India (constructed by Shah Jahan)
-
Hanging Garden - Babylon (by Nebuchadnezzar)
-
Pyramid - Egypt (in Ancient Times, Egypt was
considered part of the Orient)
B. Form of Writing:
-
Hieroglyphics-Egypt
-
Cuneiform-Mesopotamia
-
Sanskrit - India
C. Religions - all major religions and many
other minor religions of the world originated in Asia
D. Empire building
E. Great Philosophers: Confucius, Lao Tzu,
Mencuis